Metaphor

 = **__**Metaphor Criticism**__**   =  **//"The culture was the secret sauce that made this place great"//** **Words written by former Goldman Sachs employee**

**What are metaphors** Contemporary scholarly consensus tells us we live in a world of metaphorical expression. Metaphors condition how we interpret everything from literature and conversation to advertising, news reports and political speeches. They influence our attitudes, beliefs and actions in what Geary (2011) calls "surprising, hidden and often oddball ways" (p. 3). According to Geary, metaphors are used in "all fields of human endeavor" to describe one thing in terms of another (p. 3). Theories on metaphor, however, emerged long before Geary and modern times. More than two millennia have passed since Greek philosopher Aristotle was credited with introducing the first theory on metaphor - the comparison theory - in which he described metaphor as the transference of meaning between two objects in such a way that suggests an analogy (Barber & Stainton, 2011, p. 231). Aristotle considered metaphor a linguistic embroidery, decoration, or a figure of speech that adds "clearness, charm and distinction" to a rhetor's style (as cited in Foss, 2009, p. 268). **Other perspectives on metaphors** In contract to Aristotle's view of metaphors, Hobbes contends that the metaphor is a deceptive abuse of speech that "frustrates the process of communicating thoughts and knowledge," and Whately considers the use of metaphors simply inappropriate (as cited in Foss, 2009, p. 268). Foss also draws a distinction from the idea of metaphor as decoration, asserting that through the use of symbols, metaphor has the power to construct reality. By highlighting one aspect of a phenomenon and hiding another, a metaphor "produces a different description of the "same" reality" (p. 268). **How does a metaphor function ** Foss (2009) explains that metaphor joins two terms that belong to "different classes of experience" (p. 267). One term, the tenor, is the principle subject or topic that is presented, and the other, the vehicle, is the "mechanism or lens through which the topic is viewed" (p. 267). When the tenor and vehicle are brought together by a rhetor to form a metaphor, the audience is invited to see the comparison between the two and adopt the different viewpoint of the tenor that is presented through the lens of the vehicle. Metaphor then, constitutes an argument for an audience to see the tenor from a new perspective (p. 270). Because metaphors contain "implicit assumptions, points of view and evaluations," choosing to accept them is an important consideration (p. 269). **What is metaphor criticism ** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">The fact that metaphor functions as an argument and can lead audiences to conclusions based on assumptions and worldviews of others is especially salient to rhetorical criticism (Cooper, as cited in Kuypers, 2009, p. 99). By using the method of metaphor criticism in rhetorical analysis, insight can be gained into the hidden assumptions expressed through metaphor, an author's motives and view of the world, and an audience's social reality (Kuypers, p. 99). <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">

<span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">**__The Metaphoric Departure of Mr. Smith__** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">"Why I Am Leaving Goldman Sachs" By Greg Smith

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">According to Burke (1969), metaphor "brings out the thisness of a that or that thatness of a this" (p. 503). For example, if the word "character" were to be used as a general term for something distinct such as a situation, entity, person, event or object, then a metaphor would "tell us something about one character as considered from the point of view from another character" (p. 504). Burke defines metaphor as a "master" trope that "goes by the name of perspective," and he cautions that the literal and the figurative interactions in metaphor should not be confused. In other words, metaphorical claims should not be automatically assumed to be truth. Given an opportunity, there is vast potential through the use of metaphor to "exploit the possibilities" (p. 503). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Burke's characterization of metaphor is particularly salient to our analysis of //Why I Am Leaving Goldman Sachs//, an op-ed piece written by Greg Smith that appeared in the opinion section of //The New York Times// on March 14, 2012. Metaphor criticism will guide our analysis of the text as we seek to determine the rhetorical functions that are employed to influence audience perceptions of Corporate America. We will examine how, through the use of metaphor, a rhetor can have a powerful affect on public opinion about controversial issues surrounding organizational ethics, culture, leadership and profits. Our hope is that this analysis lends to a greater awareness about the need for Corporate America to build public trust - something that can be gained only through leadership that demands a culture of ethical, customer-focused, and socially responsible practices. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">The day Smith's article was published in //The New York Times// marked his last day at Goldman Sachs. The 12-year veteran started working for the multinational banking and securities firm as a summer intern and rose to the executive level, working first in New York and later in London(Smith, 2012, March 14, para. 1). The article served as his open letter of resignation. Smith tells readers right off that 12 years is long enough to understand the "trajectory" of Goldman Sachs' culture, people and identity. The firm's environment, he says, is now "toxic and destructive" and the "interests of the client continue to be sidelined" (para. 1, 2). In "good conscience," Smith states he can no longer "identify" with what the company stands for (para. 2). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">In the next section of his letter, Smith focuses on the culture at Goldman Sachs, saying that while it might sound surprising to a "skeptical public," a culture built on "teamwork, integrity, a spirit of humility, and always doing right by our clients" was the "secret sauce" that made the firm great and built client trust (para. 3). Goldman Sachs was not always interested only in making money; there was a sense of pride and belief in the firm that Smith says made him love working there. Smith tells his readers he is "sad to say" all of this is gone (para. 3). After recruiting and mentoring student interns for more than 10 years, he says he realized it was time to leave when he could no longer "look students in the eye" and tell them what a great place Goldman Sachs was to work (para. 4). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Smith then credits Goldman Sachs' current chief executive officer and its president for having "lost hold of the firm's culture on their watch," and says he believes that a loss of moral fiber threatens the firm's survival (para. 6). In listing his many accomplishments, which have included advising funds "worth over a trillion dollars," Smith says he has conducted business always doing what is right for clients, even when it means less money for Goldman Sachs (para. 7). Doing the right thing, he asserts, has become an "increasingly unpopular" view within the firm and is another reason for his departure. Making money is all that counts with the firm's leadership today and the only thing that will get you promoted (para. 8). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">He outlines what he says it takes to become a leader: <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">
 * <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">A rhetorical analysis **
 * <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The artifact **
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: sub;">Execute on the firm's "axes," which is Goldman-speak for persuading your clients to invest in the stocks ... we are trying to get rid of because they are not seen as having a lot of potential profit;
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify; vertical-align: sub;">"Hunt Elephants." In English: get your clients - some of whom are sophisticated, and some of whom aren't - to trade whatever will bring the biggest profit ...
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">...trade any illiquid, opaque product with a three-letter acronym (para. 9)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">Smith adds that the firm's leaders spend "not one minute" concerned about helping clients. An "alien from Mars" sitting in a management meeting would "believe that a client's success or progress was not part of the though process at all" (para. 10).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">Smith transitions to a discussion about employees in general at the firm, saying it makes him "ill" to hear people talking about "ripping their clients off" (para. 11). Directors, he says, refer to clients as "muppets" (para. 11). He notes that while he is not aware of illegal behavior, he is "absolutely" certain that people at Goldman Sachs "push the envelope" every day (para. 11). This type of behavior, he says, sets a bad example: "You don't have to be a rocket scientist to figure out that the junior analyst sitting quietly in the corner of the room hearing about "muppets," "ripping eyeballs out" and "getting paid" doesn't exactly turn into a model citizen" (para. 13). Smith then recalls that his proudest moments, like his full scholarship to Stanford University and his selection as a Rhodes Scholar finalist, all came through "hard work, with no shortcuts" (para. 15). Goldman Sachs, he says, is "too much about shortcuts" and the company just "doesn't feel right to me anymore" (para. 15). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">As Smith concludes, he hopes his articles serves as "a wake-up call to the board of directors" to "weed out the morally bankrupt people," and rebuild culture and trust (para. 16). <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Smith makes use of numerous metaphors that center on Goldman Sachs as a tenor to advance his rhetorical vision. His metaphors can be clustered into the three primary groupings of CULTURE, LEADERSHIP and ETHICS. <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">**//Culture//** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">Metaphors depict Goldman Sachs' culture as completely unethical, lacking in principles, and disrespectful and uncaring toward its clients. Assumptions about the metaphors Smith uses, relating to the firm's culture, can be interpreted as follows: <span style="color: #00ff00; display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">**//Leadership//** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">In the second group of metaphors, Smith portrays leadership as corrupt, immoral, narcissistic and full of greed. From the assumptions taken from these metaphors, we learn from Smith's viewpoint that: <span style="color: #00ff00; display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">**//Ethics//** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">The third group of metaphors Smith uses are focused primarily on the unethical practices allegedly employed by Goldman Sachs: <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">Most of the metaphors Smith uses are already social reality; they are easily discernible and familiar to the public. What makes them so realistic and believable for the audience, and the reason they are so significant, is the historical context in which they reside. The tenor - Goldman Sachs - as well as the entire financial industry are already suffering from a bad reputation that dates back to the highly publicized Global Financial Crisis that began in 2008. It was a crisis that resulted in the collapse of large financial institutions, bailouts of hundreds of millions of dollars to the institutions by the government (public tax dollars), and a downturn in world-wide stock markets that left many Americans bereft of their life-time savings. Many experts contend that it was a complex interplay of valuation and liquidity problems in U.S. banking systems that caused the crisis. More specifically, the Levin-Coburn Report found that the crisis was the result of "high risk, complex financial products, undisclosed conflicts of interest, the failure of regulators, and the market itself to rein in the excesses of Wall Street" (Shahabian, 2011, pp. 351, 352). Goldman Sachs has also had its own unique problems, including a $550 million dollar Securities and Exchange Commission lawsuit accusing the firm of fraud, Senate and Department of Justice Investigations, and accusations over executive pay and business model practices (Harper, 2011, May 5, para. 6, 7). **<span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;">The audience ** <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">It is no wonder that Smith's rhetoric reignited public suspicion, skepticism, doubts and anger. His article went nationwide overnight, covered by the media and viewed around the world on Internet blogs. Some commentaries featured parodies and a few defended Goldman Sachs, voicing disdain over Smith as a grandstanding malcontent. In large part, however, most readers expressed serious concerns and anxiety over the continued trouble on Wall Street, and renewed distrust over Goldman Sachs' alleged unethical practices, abominable client treatment and mismanagement. Wright (2012, March 14) praised Smith for his action, emphasizing: "A culture of ethics is needed - of fiduciary responsibility - as a sacred obligation. And role models and leaders are needed to enforce it. Too bad Goldman Sachs is losing a leader like Greg Smith today" (para. 4). Others, like Joseph Grundfest, have apparently not let down their guard since the Wall Street crisis: "Nobody ever believes that Goldman or any other financial firm puts the client first" (as cited by Eule, 2012, March 20, para. 6). Perhaps, though, Smith believed in what is stated on Goldman Sachs website about its people and culture: "Our people are our greatest asset – we say it often and with good reason. It is only with the determination and dedication of our people that we can serve our clients, generate long-term value for our shareholders and contribute to the broader public." <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Smith's very public resignation letter was also reminiscent of the cable show drama, //Mad Men//, in which creative director Don Draper, played by actor Jon Hamm, "reacts to the departure of his advertising agency’s top client, the cigarette manufacturer Lucky Strike, by taking out a full-page ad in, you guessed it, the New York Times" (Lang, 2012). Draper's “Why I’m Quitting Tobacco" opinion piece stated, “When Lucky Strike moved their business elsewhere, I realized here was my chance to be someone who can sleep at night, because I know that what I’m selling doesn’t kill my customers.” While Lang acknowledges Smith is taking on a different type of corporate toxicity, he notes that the former Goldman Sachs executive "echoes similar themes from Draper’s note -- a long-term and lucrative relationship gone sour and clients who get the short shrift" (para. 7). By drawing into his target audience's familiarity with this popular drama, Smith drew on another chord with his use of metaphors. <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">Lakoff and Johnson (1980) would not be surprised the audience resonated with metaphors in Smith's rhetoric. Metaphor, they say, "is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action" (p. 3). According to these scholars, how humans conceptualize is primarily metaphorical. Johnson (1993) claims that in dealing with ethical issues, "most of the reasoning we do ... most of the decisions we make, and most of our judgments about other people are based on metaphors" (p. 61). <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">What is more difficult to explain in this analysis comes in the form of a question that may never be answered: Why did Smith wait so long to publicly resign from Goldman Sachs? Given that the financial crisis occurred in 2008, one might speculate that Smith was fully aware of the problems he proclaims still exist today at Goldman Sachs long before he resigned. Perhaps Smith is not really the main point. The message we should focus on is that which he so creatively constructed for us through his metaphorical rhetoric. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">
 * <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Analysis of metaphors, patterns and functions **
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">The "trajectory" of the firm's culture assumes the culture has taken a deep decline.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">A "toxic" environment reflects a malevolent and harmful culture.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">The firm's previous culture depicted as containing the "secret sauce" reminds us of McDonald's famous special recipe, and relates to what Smith says Goldman Sachs' culture //used// to consist of (teamwork, integrity, humility, doing right by clients).
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">That Smith can no longer "look students in the eye" indicates he is now ashamed of the firm's culture.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">The firm's culture is one where people talk about "ripping eyeballs out," or in other words, it is like a shark infested pool where competitors are being torn to shreds.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">The firm's chief executive officer as well as its president have "lost hold of the firm's culture on their watch" - leadership is responsible for the current decline of culture.
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">To become a leader at Goldman Sachs one must "execute on the firm's axes," or persuade clients to buy stocks that have no value; "hunt elephants," or pursue whatever will bring in the biggest profit; and trade any "illiquid" (hard to convert to cash), "opaque" (doubtful) product with a "three-letter acronym" (known in the financial world as Rip Off Factor, R.O.F., meaning the amount of profit the firm can make from unsuspecting clients).
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;">An "alien from Mars" (someone who has never heard of finance) could even recognize that management spends no time serving the client's interest.
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">In reference to people at Goldman Sachs who talk about "ripping their clients off," Smith is inferring they are stealing from the clients by misleading them.
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">The people at Goldman Sachs call clients "muppets," which makes one think clients are brainless puppets that can be manipulated, or using the British meaning of muppets, they think clients are 'idiots.'
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">People of Goldman Sachs "push the envelope;" their actions are not quite illegal, but almost.
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Even those who are not "rocket scientists" can recognize that the company is only interested in making money - or in other words, it does not take a smart person to understand Goldman Sachs' greed.

<span style="color: #00ff00; display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 220%; text-align: center;">**__Conclusion__** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%; text-align: center;">**//"Glass, china and reputation are easily cracked, but never well mended"//**  <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 90%; text-align: center;">**- Benjamin Franklin** <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; text-align: left;">**<span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Metaphor, a la Smith's eyes ** <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Through metaphor, Smith presents a classical unethical culture, full of people who are untrustworthy, unethical, unprofessional and out for profit at the expense of unknowing clients; a culture where leaders care only about profit. <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Through metaphor, Smith's rhetoric has a powerful affect on public opinion. People have reacted because they already have a real-life sense for this type of corrupt culture. They have seen, read or heard about it before. Cultures have eroded this same way in many American institutions across a spectrum of industries. Lehman Brothers, Enron and WorldCom are just a few corporations that have made headlines, gone bankrupt and shocked the world. One could say then, that business leaders have been forewarned. They cannot afford to act unethically and disregard clients, consumers, stakeholders, employees or the public who can all have an immediate influence that carries across the globe. <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Well-known public relations pioneer Arthur Page said: "All business in a democratic society begins with public permission and exists by public approval. Somewhat simplistic of course, but there is no question that reputation has been and always will be undeniably linked to the success of business" (as cited in Capozzi, September, 2005, p. 290). <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: verdana,geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 22px; text-align: justify;">Corporate America would be wise to take heed.

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